Enhancing Working Memory Processing Speed for Better Learning Outcomes

Every day in classrooms around the world, children face an invisible challenge. The teacher gives instructions, moves on to the next topic, and some kids are still trying to hold onto step one while step three disappears into thin air. This isn’t about intelligence, motivation, or effort. It’s about two foundational cognitive skills that shape how children learn: working memory and processing speed.

These skills aren’t just “school problems.” They affect how children follow directions at home, keep up with conversations, complete homework, and manage daily tasks. When working memory or processing speed are weaker than expected, even bright children can struggle in ways that puzzle parents and teachers alike.

This article focuses on children aged roughly 5 to 14—the years when these skills develop rapidly and when gaps become most noticeable. You’ll learn what these cognitive abilities actually are, how they work together, what signs to watch for, and what practical strategies can help at school and home.

Key Points

• Working memory and processing speed are distinct but interconnected cognitive skills that significantly impact a child's ability to complete tasks and learn effectively.
• Slow processing speed and poor working memory can affect children of all intelligence levels, often leading to frustration and negative associations with learning.
• Early recognition and targeted support, including accommodations at school and practical strategies at home, can help children manage these challenges and reach their full potential.

Introduction: Why Working Memory and Processing Speed Matter for Kids

Think of working memory as your child’s “mental notepad”—a temporary space where information is held and manipulated for a few seconds at a time. Processing speed is their “thinking pace”—how quickly they can take in information, make sense of it, and respond.

Both skills are essential for nearly everything children do in school: following multi-step instructions, solving math problems, reading and understanding paragraphs, copying from the board, and organizing their thoughts for writing. When either skill is weaker than average, children often appear slower, more forgetful, or less capable than they actually are.

Consider this example: A 9-year-old is working on a multi-step math problem. The teacher explains the process, writes an example on the board, and moves on to the next concept. Meanwhile, this child is still trying to remember the second step while calculating the first—and by the time they look up, the board has been erased. The child isn’t struggling because they don’t understand math. Their working memory capacity couldn’t hold all the steps while their processing speed couldn’t keep up with the classroom pace.

These difficulties can co-occur with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia, developmental language disorder, and other learning disorders. But here’s what many parents don’t realize: slow processing speed and poor working memory can also appear in children with average or even high intelligence. A child can be verbally gifted and still struggle to complete assignments within the expected timeframe.

The reassuring news is that these challenges are not signs of laziness or lack of motivation. They reflect how your child’s brain handles information—and with the right strategies at home and school, you can make a real difference in reducing frustration and building confidence.

What Is Working Memory in Children?

Working memory is the cognitive system that holds and works with small amounts of information for a few seconds at a time. It’s what allows a child to remember a three-step direction long enough to act on it, or to hold the beginning of a sentence in mind while reading to the end.

Storage vs. Manipulation

There’s an important difference between simply storing information and actually manipulating it. Storing is like remembering a phone number long enough to dial it. Manipulation is mentally reordering those digits, adding them together, or using them to solve a problem.

This distinction matters because manipulating information is far more demanding. A child might successfully repeat back a list of numbers (storage) but struggle when asked to repeat them in reverse order (manipulation). Complex span tasks that require children to both remember items and process other information at the same time are where weaknesses become most apparent.

How Working Memory Develops

Working memory develops significantly from early childhood through the teenage years. Around ages 4 to 5, children show basic working memory abilities, but these skills grow rapidly during the primary school years.

Here’s what the research shows: working memory relies heavily on networks in the prefrontal cortex—the part of the brain just behind the forehead. This region continues to mature well into the early twenties, which explains why younger children are naturally more limited in how much they can hold and manipulate at once.

Classroom Examples

What does working memory look like in action? Here are common scenarios where it’s being tested:

Classroom Task	Working Memory Demand
Following multi-step instructions	Holding steps 1, 2, and 3 while starting to act
Copying from the board	Remembering where they left off while writing
Solving multi-step math problems	Holding intermediate calculations while continuing
Answering comprehension questions	Holding story details while formulating a response
Note-taking during a lecture	Processing what’s being said while writing previous points

Children with ADHD and language disorders often show measurable working memory weaknesses on standardized tests such as digit span or listening span tasks, even when their overall IQ is average. This discrepancy can be confusing for parents who know their child is smart but watch them struggle with tasks that seem simple.

What Is Processing Speed in Children?

Processing speed refers to how quickly a child can take in, understand, and respond to information. It’s not a measure of intelligence or how well they think—it’s a measure of how fast they think.

Speed vs. Motor Speed

It’s worth distinguishing processing speed from simple motor speed. Motor speed is how fast a child can move a pencil or click a mouse. Processing speed is how quickly their brain can scan visual information, recognize patterns, and make decisions.

A child might write slowly because their hand can’t keep up (motor speed) or because their brain is still figuring out what to write (processing speed). Sometimes both are at play. Psychoeducational evaluations often measure processing speed using tasks like symbol search, coding, or rapid naming tests that require quick visual scanning and matching.

School-Based Examples

In the classroom, processing speed affects nearly every timed activity:

• Finishing math facts within the time limit
• Copying notes from the board before they’re erased
• Reading a paragraph within an expected timeframe
• Writing down ideas before forgetting them
• Keeping up with oral instructions or class discussions

When Bright Kids Are Slow

Here’s what frustrates many parents: slow processing speed can appear in bright and even gifted children. These kids have sophisticated ideas in their heads, but there’s a mismatch between their thinking and what shows up on paper.

Consider a specific example: A 10-year-old consistently needs extra time on classroom tests and homework compared with classmates, even when they clearly understand the material. They grasp concepts during discussions, answer questions thoughtfully when given time, but complete work at a slower pace that makes them appear less capable than they are.

This individual’s ability to understand is intact. What’s limited is the speed at which they can process information and produce responses.

How Working Memory and Processing Speed Work Together (and Independently)

Working memory and processing speed are closely linked but not identical. Research with school-aged children—including those with ADHD—has helped clarify how these skills interact.

The Direction of Influence

Studies consistently show that when tasks make heavier processing speed demands on working memory, children’s response times slow down. The cognitive load—the proportion of mental resources consumed by a task—directly affects how much capacity remains for holding information.

Think of it this way: if a child’s brain is working hard to process incoming visual information quickly, there’s less mental energy available to maintain memory items. The two systems compete for limited resources.

What Research Tells Us

Research by Barrouillet and colleagues demonstrated that cognitive load is defined as the proportion of time consumed by processing relative to time available for refreshing mental representations. The effect on memory span is consistently negative—higher cognitive load means fewer items can be remembered.

Interestingly, the relationship isn’t perfectly symmetrical. Experimental manipulations that slow down processing speed (such as making visual information less clear or more complex) don’t always reduce working memory capacity to the same extent as the reverse. This suggests the influence primarily flows from working memory demands to processing efficiency.

Studies with Children

Research using school-aged children performing computerized tasks has examined what happens when both working memory load and processing speed demands vary. In both ADHD and non-ADHD children, higher working memory load tends to reduce the “drift rate”—a measure of how efficiently information accumulation occurs during decision-making. This means children take longer or show more inconsistent response times when working memory is taxed.

Implications for Assessment

The key takeaway: for many children, weak working memory and slow processing speed are partially independent challenges. Assessment and support should examine both areas rather than assuming one fully explains the other.

A child might have:

• Strong working memory but slow processing speed
• Adequate processing speed but poor working memory
• Challenges in both areas
• Strengths in both areas

Each profile requires different strategies.

Signs of Working Memory and Processing Speed Difficulties in Children

Parents and teachers often notice patterns long before a formal diagnosis. Recognizing signs early—particularly in primary school—is key to getting children the support they need.

Everyday Signs of Working Memory Difficulties

Watch for these patterns at home and school:

• Forgetting multi-step directions partway through
• Losing track of what they were doing mid-task
• Frequently asking “What were we doing again?” or “Can you repeat that?”
• Needing instructions given one step at a time
• Difficulty remembering what they just read
• Struggling to keep track of belongings, assignments, or schedules

Academic Signs of Working Memory Strain

In schoolwork, poor working memory often appears as:

• Incomplete steps in math problems (they forget intermediate calculations)
• Trouble summarizing stories because they can’t hold all the details
• Difficulty keeping their place when copying from the board
• Skipping steps in writing assignments
• Messy or disorganized written work despite understanding the content
• Needing to reread passages multiple times

Signs of Slow Processing Speed

Slow processing often looks different from memory difficulties:

• Taking much longer than peers to start and finish tasks
• Struggling with timed tests even when they know the material
• Appearing “spacey” or distracted when actually still thinking
• Being the last to pack up, copy homework, or transition between activities
• Difficulty keeping up with class discussions or rapid instructions
• Needing significantly more time to complete assignments at home

Emotional and Behavioral Ripple Effects

These cognitive challenges create secondary effects that are often more visible than the underlying cause:

• Frustration and outbursts during homework
• Avoidance of challenging tasks
• Low confidence and negative self-talk (“I’m stupid,” “I can’t do anything right”)
• Anxiety about school performance
• Withdrawal from classroom participation

These negative associations between effort and outcome can damage a child’s relationship with learning if not addressed.

When Signs Become Most Obvious

Many parents notice that difficulties intensify between about 3rd and 6th grade. Why? This is when schoolwork shifts from short, concrete tasks to longer, multi-step assignments. The classroom pace quickens, and expectations for independent work increase.

A child who managed adequately in early grades may suddenly struggle when processing speed demands and working memory requirements outpace their capabilities.

Working Memory, Processing Speed, and Childhood Conditions

Working memory and processing speed weaknesses frequently appear alongside conditions like ADHD, developmental language disorder, dyslexia, and dysgraphia. Understanding these connections helps parents and educators provide targeted support.

The ADHD Connection

Research consistently shows that children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder often have moderate-to-large working memory deficits. They also show noticeable inconsistencies in processing speed, especially under high working memory demands.

According to studies using standardized assessments like the WISC-IV, children with ADHD frequently show lower scores on working memory and processing speed indices than on measures of verbal comprehension or perceptual reasoning. This pattern—where cognitive proficiency lags behind general cognitive ability—helps explain why these children can be so bright yet struggle so much with schoolwork.

Language Disorders and Working Memory

Children with developmental language disorder often show weaknesses in phonological working memory—the system that holds speech sounds temporarily. This affects:

• Learning new vocabulary words
• Understanding complex sentences
• Following verbal instructions
• Organizing language needs for speaking and writing

Slower processing of spoken language means these children may miss parts of conversations or instructions, not because they aren’t listening, but because their brain processes information at a slower pace.

Research has shown that better working memory is associated with being better word learners in childhood. Children who can hold more phonological information tend to acquire vocabulary more efficiently.

Reading Disorders

In reading disorders like dyslexia, processing speed affects rapid naming of letters and words. This relationship between stimulus encoding speed and reading fluency is well-documented. When a child’s brain takes longer to recognize and retrieve letter patterns, reading becomes slower and more effortful, which in turn affects comprehension.

What These Connections Mean

These cognitive difficulties are not caused by poor motivation, inadequate parenting, or lack of effort. They reflect individual differences in how the child’s brain handles information processing and memory.

If academic struggles, slow work pace, and memory complaints persist for at least six months despite good effort and quality teaching, consider seeking a comprehensive psychoeducational or neuropsychological evaluation.

How These Skills Affect Language, Reading, and Learning in Childhood

Working memory and processing speed directly impact language development, reading fluency, writing skills, and math problem-solving throughout the school years.

Working Memory and Language

Working memory supports several critical language skills:

• Understanding long or complex sentences
• Following classroom explanations with multiple points
• Holding story details while answering comprehension questions
• Organizing thoughts before speaking or writing
• Learning new vocabulary and concepts

When working memory is weaker, children may lose track of what the teacher said, forget the beginning of a sentence by the time they reach the end, or struggle to hold a mental model of a story while reading.

Processing Speed and Reading

Slower processing speed can make it harder for children to:

• Decode unfamiliar words quickly
• Recognize sight words automatically
• Keep pace with class discussions or oral instructions
• Complete reading assignments within expected timeframes

Real-World Examples

A 7-year-old learning to read: This child sounds out every word carefully but forgets the beginning of the sentence by the time they reach the period. Their processing speed for decoding is so slow that working memory capacity is exhausted before they can extract meaning.

A 12-year-old in science class: This student understands the concepts during experiments and discussions but cannot complete written lab reports within the allotted time. Their ideas are sophisticated, but the combination of processing speed and working memory demands in writing exceeds their current capacity.

Receptive vs. Expressive Tasks

An important distinction: expressive tasks (speaking, writing answers, explaining reasoning) are typically more demanding on working memory and processing speed than recognition tasks (pointing to a picture, choosing from multiple-choice options, identifying correct answers).

This is why the same child might score well on recognition tasks but poorly on tasks requiring them to produce answers from scratch. Assessment should include both task types to get the big picture of the child’s ability.

The Research Connection

Studies consistently show that better working memory and processing speed are associated with:

• Stronger vocabulary development
• Better reading comprehension
• More efficient word learning
• Greater fluency in writing
• Improved math problem-solving performance

These skills don’t just matter for a single subject—they underpin learning across all academic domains.

Supporting Working Memory and Processing Speed at School

The goal of classroom support is to make learning more accessible—not to lower expectations. Accommodations provide a fair opportunity for children to show what they know, rather than having their understanding masked by processing limitations.

Extra Time

Providing extended time on classwork, quizzes, and standardized tests is one of the most effective accommodations. This is especially important when tasks are heavy on:

• Reading passages
• Written responses
• Multi-step reasoning
• Copying or note-taking

Extra time allows children to work at their own pace rather than racing against a clock that doesn’t match their processing speed.

Breaking Tasks into Steps

Large assignments overwhelm limited working memory capacity. Teachers can help by:

• Dividing tasks into clearly numbered steps
• Presenting one question or one chunk at a time
• Providing checklists students can reference
• Checking comprehension after each step before moving on

Repeated and Visual Instructions

Children with working memory problems struggle when instructions are given once and expected to be remembered. Effective strategies include:

• Repeating instructions in the same words
• Providing written or visual supports (checklists on the desk, key steps posted on the board)
• Using visual schedules for daily routines
• Allowing children to write down instructions immediately

Outlines and Advance Organizers

Helping students grasp the big picture before diving into details directly supports slower processing speed. Strategies include:

• Providing outlines at the start of lessons
• Using graphic organizers for reading and writing
• Summarizing key points before detailed instructions
• Previewing vocabulary and concepts before new units

Flexible Grading Approaches

Consider adjusting how work is evaluated:

Traditional Approach	Accommodated Approach
Full credit only for completed work	Partial credit for completed sections
Points deducted for late submission	Extended deadlines without penalty
Timed writing assessments	Untimed or extended-time options
Quantity-focused (number of problems)	Quality-focused (demonstrated understanding)

These adjustments don’t lower standards—they remove barriers that prevent capable children from demonstrating their knowledge.

Reducing Processing Speed Demands

Teachers can also adjust the environment to reduce unnecessary cognitive load:

• Providing printed notes rather than requiring copying
• Allowing voice recording of lectures for later review
• Using fill-in-the-blank worksheets rather than full written responses
• Offering alternative ways to demonstrate knowledge (oral responses, demonstrations)

Practical Home Strategies for Parents

Parents cannot “rebuild” working memory or processing speed overnight. But you can create routines and environments that dramatically reduce stress and help your child function at their best.

Simplify Instructions

For younger children, give one or two steps at a time:

Instead of: “Go upstairs, brush your teeth, put on your pajamas, pick out your clothes for tomorrow, and come back down.”

Try: “Go brush your teeth. Come tell me when you’re done.”

For older children, have them repeat detailed instructions back in their own words to confirm understanding before starting.

Use External Supports

Reduce the load on mental stamina by making information visible:

• Written lists for morning and bedtime routines
• Visual charts showing steps for regular tasks
• Planners or apps for homework tracking (for older children)
• Sticky notes with reminders in key locations
• Timers to help with pacing and transitions

These tools compensate for limited short term memory by storing information externally.

Adjust Homework Expectations

Work with your child’s school to create reasonable homework conditions:

• Start homework earlier in the afternoon when mental energy is higher
• Allow planned breaks every 15-20 minutes
• Request reduced homework loads when tasks are clearly overwhelming despite genuine effort
• Focus on completion of key items rather than every single problem
• Communicate with teachers about what’s working and what isn’t

Use Repetition and Overlearning

Information moves from short term memory to long term memory through repetition and practice. Support this process by:

• Reviewing key facts or vocabulary in multiple short sessions across the week
• Using flashcards, apps, or games to make review engaging
• Returning to previously learned material periodically
• Connecting new information to things your child already knows

This approach works better than one long cram session the night before a test.

Create Optimal Work Conditions

The homework environment matters:

• Choose a calm, low-distraction space
• Minimize background noise and visual clutter
• Have all materials ready before starting
• Build in planned breaks to prevent cognitive overload
• Stay nearby for support without hovering

Practice Response Caution

Some children with faster processing rush through work and make careless errors. Others with slower processing need encouragement to take the time they need. Help your child find the right balance:

• For rushers: Teach “check your work” routines
• For slow processors: Validate that taking time is okay
• For both: Focus on accuracy rather than speed for skill-building tasks

Games, Activities, and Everyday Practice to Support Kids

While direct “brain training” has its limits, playful practice and strategy use can help children function better in real-life tasks. The key is keeping it fun and low-pressure.

Memory Games

Games that naturally challenge working memory include:

• Card games: Go Fish, Memory (matching pairs), Uno, Crazy Eights
• Sequence games: Simon Says with multiple steps, pattern clapping or movement games
• Board games: Games requiring tracking of multiple pieces or rule sets
• Number games: Simple mental math challenges, “what’s one more/less”

Language-Based Activities

Practice holding and manipulating verbal information through:

• Recalling details from a short story just read (“What happened first? Then what?”)
• Telling the sequence of events from their day
• Following multi-step recipes together
• Playing “I went to the store and bought…” (adding items each round)
• Giving verbal directions to a destination or through a game

Multi-Sensory Practice

Activities that engage multiple senses reduce the load on any single processing channel:

• Typing while listening to content
• Drawing diagrams while reading
• Building models from written instructions
• Using manipulatives for math (blocks, counters, number lines)
• Acting out stories or sequences physically

Teaching Self-Advocacy

Help your child learn to manage their own working memory and pacing needs by teaching them to say:

• “Could you repeat that more slowly?”
• “Can I write that down?”
• “I need a minute to think.”
• “Can you show me an example?”

These skills serve children throughout their academic careers and into adulthood.

Consistency Over Intensity

Short, daily, consistent practice is more beneficial than rare, long sessions. Aim for:

• 10-15 minutes of memory games several times per week
• Brief daily review of school material
• Regular (but not constant) strategy reminders
• Fun activities that don’t feel like work

If practice becomes another source of stress, it defeats the purpose. Keep the focus light and enjoyable.

When to Seek an Evaluation and How Professionals Can Help

Consider seeking a formal evaluation when slow work pace, forgetfulness, and academic struggles persist for at least a school term and are affecting grades, homework completion, or your child’s confidence.

Who Can Help

Several professionals assess working memory, processing speed, and related skills:

Professional	What They Assess
School psychologist	Cognitive abilities, academic achievement, learning patterns
Neuropsychologist	Comprehensive brain-behavior relationships, executive function, memory systems
Speech-language pathologist	Language processing, verbal working memory, language difficulties
Educational psychologist	Learning profiles, academic intervention planning

What an Evaluation Includes

A typical evaluation for a child aged 7-12 might include:

Cognitive testing: IQ assessment (such as the WISC) with separate indices for working memory and processing speed, distinct from the General Abilities Index measuring verbal comprehension and perceptual reasoning.

Academic achievement testing: Reading, writing, and math assessments to identify specific academic impacts.

Attention assessment: Measures of sustained attention, impulsivity, and behavioral regulation.

Language assessment: Receptive and expressive language skills, particularly if language disorder is suspected.

Behavioral questionnaires: Parent and teacher ratings of attention, behavior, and academic functioning.

Complex span tasks and other specialized measures may be used to examine specific aspects of working memory function. According to research by Friedman et al. and others, these detailed assessments can identify patterns that explain why a child struggles despite adequate general cognitive ability.

What a Good Report Provides

A helpful evaluation report should:

• Translate test scores into plain language explanations
• Describe how findings explain the child’s specific struggles
• Provide practical recommendations for classroom accommodations
• Suggest home strategies tailored to the child’s profile
• Identify whether further assessment (such as for ADHD or language disorder) is needed

Using Results to Get Support

Once you have evaluation results:

• Share findings with your child’s teachers and school administration
• Request a meeting to discuss accommodations (in the U.S., this might be an IEP or 504 plan meeting)
• Work collaboratively to implement recommended strategies
• Monitor progress and adjust supports as needed over time

A Shift in Understanding

Perhaps the most valuable outcome of understanding your child’s working memory and processing speed profile is a shift in interpretation. Behaviors that once looked like “won’t” become understood as “can’t yet, without support.”

This reframe changes everything:

• From: “She’s not trying hard enough”
• To: “She’s working hard but her brain processes information at a slower pace”
• From: “He doesn’t listen”
• To: “His working memory can’t hold multi-step instructions”
• From: “She’s lazy”
• To: “She needs fewer errors pressure and more time to complete work”

This compassionate understanding guides more effective help—for parents, teachers, and most importantly, for children who have been working harder than anyone realized.

What to Do Next

If this article resonated with your experience of your child, consider these steps:

1. Observe and document specific situations where your child struggles with memory or speed over the next few weeks.
2. Talk to your child’s teacher about what they’re seeing in the classroom and whether concerns align.
3. Implement one or two home strategies from this article and notice what helps.
4. Request an evaluation if concerns persist for a full term despite good effort and supportive teaching.
5. Share this article with teachers, family members, or other parents who might benefit.

Understanding working memory and processing speed changes how we see children’s struggles. It shifts blame to brain-based explanations and opens doors to support that actually works. Your child isn’t being difficult—they’re working within the limits of how their brain currently functions. With the right understanding and strategies, those limits don’t have to define their success.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

What is the difference between working memory and processing speed?

Working memory is the ability to hold and manipulate information in the mind for a short period, like remembering steps in a task. Processing speed refers to how quickly the brain can take in, understand, and respond to information. While related, they are distinct cognitive functions.

Can a child have poor working memory but normal processing speed?

Yes. Some children may have strong processing speed but struggle with working memory tasks, and vice versa. Each profile affects learning differently and requires tailored support.

How do working memory and processing speed affect learning?

Both skills are crucial for tasks such as following instructions, reading comprehension, problem-solving, and completing assignments. Weaknesses can lead to slower work pace, difficulty keeping up with classroom demands, and frustration.

Is slow processing speed a learning disability?

Slow processing speed itself is not classified as a formal learning disability but can significantly impact academic performance. It often co-occurs with other conditions like ADHD or dyslexia.

What signs suggest a child has working memory or processing speed difficulties?

Common signs include trouble following multi-step directions, taking longer to complete tasks, difficulty keeping track of information, frequent forgetfulness, and struggling with timed tests or assignments.

How can parents and teachers support children with these challenges?

Support strategies include providing extra time, breaking tasks into smaller steps, repeating instructions, using visual aids, reducing distractions, and encouraging the use of planners or timers.

Can working memory and processing speed be improved?

While these cognitive skills can be strengthened through targeted practice and strategy use, improvements are often gradual. Consistent, supportive environments and accommodations help children manage challenges effectively.

When should a child be evaluated for working memory or processing speed issues?

If difficulties persist over time, affect academic performance or self-esteem, and are noticeable across settings despite effort and quality instruction, a comprehensive evaluation by a qualified professional is recommended.

Are working memory and processing speed related to language difficulties?

Yes. Both skills influence language learning, vocabulary acquisition, and comprehension. Children with language disorders often show weaknesses in working memory and processing speed.

How do working memory and processing speed relate to ADHD?

Children with ADHD frequently exhibit deficits in working memory and processing speed, which contribute to challenges in attention, task completion, and academic achievement.

Original content from the Upbility writing team. Reproducing this article, in whole or in part, without credit to the publisher is prohibited.

References

• Barrouillet, P., Bernardin, S., & Camos, V. (2004). Time constraints and resource sharing in adults’ working memory spans. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133(1), 83–100.
• Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Young, S. E., DeFries, J. C., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K. (2006). Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 135(2), 201–225.
• Kofler, M. J., Rapport, M. D., Bolden, J., Sarver, D. E., & Raiker, J. S. (2014). ADHD and working memory: The impact of central executive deficits and exceeding storage/rehearsal capacity on observed inattentive behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(2), 149–161.
• Karalunas, S. L., & Huang-Pollock, C. L. (2013). Information processing deficits in ADHD: Evidence for a dissociation between decision-making and response execution. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 42(2), 170–181.
• Weigard, A., & Huang-Pollock, C. L. (2017). Effects of experimentally manipulated information processing speed on working memory performance in children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45(6), 1113–1127.